The INE-GSEE presents the second part of the findings from its major nationwide survey on employment, skills, continuing vocational training, and the quality of work among private-sector employees.
The survey was conducted on a sample of 6,000 workers from across the country, using telephone interviews and stratified random sampling. Data collection took place from November 3 to December 9, 2025, by the companies Alco, Metron Analysis, and Prorata.
The first part of the study revealed a workplace landscape where investment in knowledge and skills is not reflected in the positions employees hold, while access to continuing education remains the privilege of the few. The second part shifts the analysis from the relationship between skills and job position to the actual conditions under which the work is performed. The findings reveal unpaid overtime, time pressure, and physical and mental strain, which together paint a picture highlighting the structural problems of the labor market.
1. Overtime as the Norm: Working Hours and Overtime
The research shows that working beyond regular hours is a significant aspect of the daily work experience. Overtime concerns not only the duration of work but also its compensation. The findings indicate that a significant portion of employees work beyond their scheduled hours, while overtime emerges as a varied yet universal aspect across all businesses and individual employment relationships.
- Working beyond regular hours affects a significant portion of employees and is not always accompanied by direct financial compensation. Nearly one in three employees, 35.5%, reports working beyond their regular hours. Of those who work extra hours, more than half, 54.7%, report being paid for them, while 34.5% are not paid, and 8.9% do not receive monetary compensation but instead receive time off or a day off. Overall, 43.4% do not receive direct monetary compensation for their additional work.
- The amount of overtime increases as the size of the business grows, while the intensity of overtime remains high even in medium-sized businesses. In companies with up to 9 employees, 32% report working beyond regular hours at least occasionally, while in companies with 250 or more employees, the percentage reaches 45.4%. However, among those working extra hours, the highest rate of heavy overtime—defined as 6 or more extra hours per week—is recorded in companies with 50–249 employees (35.6%) and in companies with 10–49 employees (35.5%). The data indicate that overwork is not limited to large enterprises but is prevalent across different sizes of business organizations.
- Compensation for overtime varies significantly by gender. Among employees who work extra hours, men are more likely to report being paid for them, at 58.8%, compared to 48.9% of women. Conversely, women are more likely to report that they are not paid for their extra work hours, at 41.1%, compared to 29.9% of men. This finding reflects a gender disparity in the financial recognition of additional work.
- The lack of direct monetary compensation for overtime remains high across different company sizes. Overall, 43.4% of employees who work extra hours report that they do not receive direct monetary compensation, either because they are not paid or because they receive time off or a day off in lieu. The highest percentage is recorded in companies with 10–49 employees, at 46.5%, followed by companies with 250 or more employees, at 45.3%, and very small companies with up to 9 employees, at 44.5%.
- The rate of unpaid overtime is higher among employees who report working beyond regular hours more frequently. Among those who work beyond their regular hours very often, nearly one in two, 45.6%, report that they are not paid for the extra hours worked. The corresponding percentage is 38% for those who frequently work beyond their regular hours, 33.5% for those who do so sometimes, and 31.8% for those who do so rarely.
2. Factors contributing to work-related stress and health impacts.
The survey also highlights the close link between working hours and workers’ health. The findings show that the quality of work is not determined solely by salary or working hours, but also by the physical and mental effects that employees themselves associate with their work.
- Work-related stress appears to be a widespread phenomenon and is not limited to extreme cases. The most common stressors are intense time pressure or a heavy workload, reported by 60.1% of employees, and prolonged standing or sitting, at 58.8%. These are followed by repetitive physical movements, at 31.3%, and other causes of work-related stress, at 22.2%.
- Among employees working 11 or more extra hours per week, 86.2% report time pressure or a heavy workload, 80.8% report prolonged standing or sitting, 56.3% report working during their free time, and 49.8% report repetitive movements. The findings indicate that overwork not only increases the duration of work but also contributes to a deterioration in its quality.
- Unpaid overtime is associated with a higher psychosocial burden. Employees who are not compensated for extra hours report working during their free time more frequently, 38.4% compared to 18% of those who are paid, other causes of work-related stress, 34.3% compared to 22.1%, limited communication or collaboration, 25% compared to 15.5%, and physical or verbal violence, 17.6% compared to 9.4%. Unpaid overtime, therefore, is not merely a financial issue; it is linked to more burdensome working conditions.
- Stress emerges as the most common health problem that employees associate with their work, as 42.1% report that they experienced or saw a worsening of stress over the past 12 months. This is followed by pain in bones, joints, or muscles (29.4%), headaches or eye strain (28.9%), and general fatigue (27.3%).
- Employees at large companies, with 250 or more employees, show higher rates of deterioration in key work-related health indicators. Anxiety reaches 46.5%, bone, joint, or muscle pain at 35.9%, headaches at 39.1%, and overall fatigue at 33%. In contrast, very small businesses, with up to 9 employees, report lower rates across most indicators.
- Employees who very often think about changing jobs consistently report higher rates of work-related health problems. The largest discrepancy is seen in stress, where the rate reaches 63.3%, compared to 36.2% for those who never think about changing jobs. Rates are also higher for bone, joint, or muscle pain (45% vs. 27%), headaches (42.8% vs. 23%), and overall fatigue (37.4% vs. 21.6%).
- Employees working 11 or more extra hours per week show higher rates of deterioration in key health indicators. The largest discrepancy is observed in pain in bones, joints, or muscles, where the rate reaches 48.8%, compared to 30.7% among employees working 1 to 5 extra hours. Rates are also higher for stress, 57% versus 47.7%, and for overall fatigue, 45.3% versus 29.4%.
- The health burden increases as weekly overtime hours increase and becomes more pronounced when the extra hours are unpaid. Among employees working 11 or more extra hours per week, stress reaches 57%, pain in bones, joints, or muscles 48.8%, and overall fatigue 45.3%. Similarly, those who are not compensated for overtime report higher rates of stress, 57.1% compared to 45.6% of those who are paid, headaches or eye strain, 44% compared to 28%, and overall fatigue, 40.1% compared to 27.6%.
* See the survey in the Related Materials section.